INTRODUCTION

The concept of metaphor has emerged as an important part of contemporary linguistic theory. This was due, in large part, to the work of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) and their publications which argue that metaphors play a major role in human cognition. Metaphors involve analogical thinking. They require that some source be used to construct a target as a new concept based on that source. The source is used to analogically construct a new concept. This earlier work on metaphor is concerned essentially with language and the construction of verbal metaphors. In this project, however, other forms of analogical thinking are introduced. Not only is this work concerned with the use of analogical thinking in language, it is also concerned with other forms of analogical reasoning such as visual metaphors, tonal metaphors, and praxiological metaphors. A Verbal metaphor uses one verbal structure to create another verbal form. For example, "John is a tiger" is a verbal metaphor. It is based on a series of analogical structures. John is strong as a tiger is strong; John is brave as a tiger is brave; and John is virile as a tiger is virile. A normal analogy is A is to B as C is to D. In a verbal metaphor, the analogy is A is to D as C is to D. The common element, D, which is carried across from the source to the target is called the vehicle. The qualities of the tiger are mapped onto those of John, a man.

VERBAL METAPHOR John is a tiger	ANALOGICAL PATTERN John is strong as a tiger is strong John is ferocious as a tiger is ferocious John is brave as a tiger is brave John is virile as a tiger is virile
ANALOGICAL FUNCTION A = D :: B = D	MAPPING FUNCTION

There are other kinds of verbal metaphors that are created by means of blends (Fauconnier and Turner, 2002) and that may be another kind of mapping operation. The structure of the aforementioned verbal metaphor, however, is based on an analogical shift of properties from its source to its target.
In the case of visual metaphors, one image provides the source for another image. Consider the verbal metaphor "The atom is a miniature solar system." This is based on the visual analogy of a solar system with the sun at its center; the planets circling around it at various distances from the sun.

By means of analogical reasoning, visual metaphors use one visual form as its source to create another visual form. The new form constitutes the visual metaphor. The new metaphor can then be reconstituted so that it provides the bases for a whole new theory of the atom. Such entities are explanatory metaphors (St. Clair, 2002).

Analogical reasoning can also take place within tonal systems. A tonal metaphor occurs when one tonal pattern is used as the source for the creation of another tonal structure. In music, the tonal structures are resonant entities that belong to musical scales. When parts of a musical scale are played, they create the source for later patterns that are modified into target patterns. In music theory, these major scales are defined by musical notation within ledger lines. The resonant tonal pattern within a C major scale, for example, is evidenced by the C chord of C, E, and G.

Notes that are played within a musical scale constitute a melody. Tonal metaphors can be found in the modified repetition of a melody. These modifications can take many forms. Musicians have their own favorite tonal metaphors. A common pattern is music is to play a chord and invert it. An interval is inverted by moving the bottom note of the interval up an octave so that it is above what was previously the top note. It is called an inversion because the pattern is inverted. Consider, for example, the following common diatonic intervals and their inversions.

Inversions can also take place by means of triads. This is done by moving the lowest note up one octave. They are called triads because they consist of three notes within a chord

Praxiological metaphors have to do with repeated movements or physiological patterns that serve as a source for new patterns. The shifting of a key in music is an example of a praxiological metaphor. The shift from the key of C major to the shift of G major involves moving the musical scale up in order to perform the music in a new key. What is the change that takes place? The C major scale changes F to F# (F sharp). The C major scale provides the source for the new key of G. One could continue to shift from one key to another by adding sharps to the musical scale. This use of one pattern of movement on the piano board to create another pattern is known as the Circle of Fifths. In order to be able to shift key with ease while playing Jazz, for example, one needs to internalize these patterns of movement (praxis). The pattern of movement on a piano is different from that of other musical instruments. Each is embedded within its own praxiological structures.
It is not uncommon for people to integrate analogical thinking in one mode of expression with that of another. This occurs whether or not the modes employ analogical thinking. Musical notation, for example, is a representation of the act of playing a musical

instrument and it can be argued that playing music on an instrument is the embodiment of a system of musical notation based on a music system. Professional athletes are trained to visualize their performances and then execute them automatically. When the change fromone mode to another in the process uses analogical thinking, the process is metaphorical.